失讀症 症狀

失讀症是一般用來描述一種無法預期 , 嚴重的 , 及持續在閱讀的學習上有困難/障礙 . 顯然這是最通常可見的學習障礙 , 失讀症狀在所有學習障礙數字中預估佔有80%的比率(Shaywitz, 2003) , 以及至少佔有人口總數的5%有這問題 . 這並不會是智商低或弱智, 視覺或聽覺障礙 , 不良的教學 , 或失去教育機會所造成的原因 .大多數有失讀症的孩子在早期的介入和治療後 , 通常能夠在成長後與相近智商的人在職業上能夠相互較量 .

大多數的失讀症患者是在小學三年級才被發現有這方面的問題.

一般類型的失讀症

失讀症可能有很多不同的典型及多樣性嚴重的狀況 . 然而 , 大多數的狀況可能可以集合成以下三種類別 :

視覺型失讀症 (Visual Dyslexia)
閱讀處理的困難

聽覺失讀症 (Auditory Dyslexia)
聽聞處理過程的困難

綜合失讀症(Mixed Dyslexia)
視覺及聽覺處理的困難

症狀類別

失讀症的症狀可能需要考慮個案各別不同的狀況 , 一般的症狀可能包含有以下所列的一些情況或者所有的情況都包含在內 :

  1. 學習或記憶印刷的字體
  2. 數字/圖形基本的概念
  3. 字音的曲解 [表層失讀](如mind和mine)
  4. 字與音相關連的錯誤
  5. 短期記憶
  6. 混淆字
  7. 顛倒字/相反字
  8. 跳字
  9. 忽略失讀字 會 “卡” 在一句中的一個字或一句中(一直重覆) (中文字體往往只會讀一半邊的字 如 : [楊] 為[木]或 [易]
  10. 插入字和替換字 (拼音或寫字)
  11. 有困難分別混合音和音節 (中文ㄉㄨㄥ會唸成ㄉㄥ)
  12. 理解能力
  13. 閱讀需要費更多的功夫(時間和精神)
  14. 很難持續的保持寫作的連續性
  15. 口述表達有困難
  16. 持續反覆的出現拼音的錯誤
  17. 書寫
  18. 算術技巧和數學的計算

書寫障礙(Dysgraphia)

書寫障礙是一種特殊的學習障礙 , 這包含有資料在書寫時的處理和報告/表達能力的遐疵 . 學習寫作是件複雜的工作 , 這牽涉到統整複雜的處理程序 , 包括有視覺處理過程 , 感覺統合活動 , 肌肉活動的組織計劃 , 記憶力 , 及空間處理的複雜統合程序 . 在任何一個地方或是所有有關的區域有受損傷的現象 , 就會造成在寫作技巧上明顯的障礙 . 對於有書寫障礙的人來說 , 需要手眼協調的動作/工作時就會出現嚴重的困難 , 造成寫字草率 , 不整齊 , 以及經常發生完全難以識別所寫出的字 . 然而書寫障礙的問題 , 可能每個患者的症狀各有不同 , 因人而異 , 一般的症狀包括有 :

  • 學習書寫技巧緩慢
  • 字的形狀和數字難以記得住
  • 對於字或數字的構組識別有困難
  • 鏡相字體 (反字體)
  • 寫相反的字或數字
  • 對於書寫在紙(頁)上的安排/佈局有困難
  • 字裡行間書寫出現不平均的空間分佈
  • 漏字或漏數字
  • 重複字或數字
  • 不整潔/不整齊的書寫
  • 很多刪掉或擦掉的痕跡在紙上/書寫的作業或報告
  • 遺忘須要使用大寫字的字母(英文)
  • 經常的用錯標點符號
  • 錯誤的拼音(英文)
  • 需要費很多的時間和精力來完成一份書寫的報告或功課
  • 錯誤的使用字及文法

診斷

診斷書寫障礙(又稱為書寫表達缺失) , 是根據低落於大體年齡層該有的書寫技巧及功能 , 智商 , 學生年齡應有的適當教育等為依據 . 此外 , 這些明顯的障礙會影響學校的成績表現 , 或是在生活中需要立刻書寫記錄的延遲動作. (1) 很多的人有書寫障礙 , 同時在其他的表現上也一樣的會出現困難的地方 . 書寫障礙經常和失讀症及注意力缺失及記憶力不足 , 學習算數的障礙息息相關 .

1.        Adapted from: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition. American Psychiatric Association, 1994.

計算功能障礙(Dyscalculia)

計算功能障礙 , 或是 “ 算術障礙” , 這是一種學習障礙 , 這關係到嚴重的在學習上表現出來有計算算術技巧/知識的能力不足 . 這種障礙自然可以考量的區域在 : (1) 語言處理過程的技巧 , 和數學的術語和觀念不足有關; (2) 瞭解數字所代表的符號概念不足 (3) 注意力和記憶的問題影響到正確的模仿和跟隨的程序 ; (4) 解答書寫的問題(應用題) .

造成計算障礙的根本原因尚未能完全的被瞭解 . 但是大多數有關計算障礙的難題研究員有提出 , 這很重要的因素是在於在右半腦顳葉皮質失去功能 . 有些的研究員(Rurke, 1978; Temple, 1992) 認為 , 可能會有多種不同模式的計算障礙 , 而每一種計算障礙都有不同的症狀和產生的因素 .

一般障礙的範圍包括有 :

  • 難以瞭解基本的數字觀念
  • 難以了解數字代表的關係
  • 閱讀和書寫數字的錯誤
  • 有計算/計數的困難
  • 學習計算有困難
  • 學習九九乘法表有困難
  • 對於列舉/細目/計數有困難
  • 數字會顛倒的寫
  • 需要花很多時間和精力完成數學習題
  • 做應用題有困難
  • 排列成欄/縱列/分段有困難
  • 對於計量有困難
  • 拒絕所有與數字有關的問題
  • 只要與數字有關的問題就會造成情緒的困擾
  • 只要與數字有關的作業就產生難以忍受的感到措折感
  • 持續的重複 (例如: 如果第一題是用加法計算的算術題目 , 孩子可能會持續的以加法計算 , 即使其他的問題可能會是減法 , 但孩子仍為以加法來計算)

診斷 :

計算障礙影響到大約6%的人口比率 , 然而有些研究員提出這比率或許會是更高 . 計算障礙經常和閱讀 , 書寫和其他的學習障礙有關連 , 但偶爾也會有單獨發生的可能性 . 診斷計算障礙是根據低落於大體在那年齡層該有的書寫技巧及功能 , 智商 , 學生年齡應有的適當教育等為依據 . 此外 , 這些的困難明顯的影響到學習成績 , 日常生活所需的算數能力做為診斷的基礎 .

資料來源 : Mr. Ernie Jones, Problems of Childhood 2006, Department of Psychology Las Positas College CA.

Dyslexia Symptoms

Dyslexia is a general term used to describe an unexpected, severe, and persistent difficulty in learning to read. By far the most common learning disability, accounting for an estimated 80% of all learning disabilities ( Shaywitz, 2003), and at least 5% of the population. It does not result from low intelligence or mental retardation, visual or hearing defects, poor teaching, or lack of educational opportunity. With early intervention and treatment, most children with dyslexia can attain adults careers comparable to people with similar IQs.

Most cases of Dyslexia are not recognized until about the 3rd grade.

Common Forms of Dyslexia

Dyslexia can take many different forms and vary in severity. However, most cases can be grouped into the following three categories:

Visual Dyslexia
Difficulty with processing what is read.

Auditory Dyslexia
Difficulty processing what is heard

Mixed Dyslexia
Difficulties with visual and auditory processing

Symptom Profile

Although the symptoms of dyslexia can very considerably among individuals, common symptoms include difficulties involving any or all of the following:

1.   Learning and remembering printed words

2.   Figure-ground perception

3.   Discriminating between sounds (e.g., mind and mine)

4.   Errors in letter-sound association

5.   Short-term memory

6.   Letter confusions

7.   Letter reversals

8.   Skipping words

9.   Recognition of words on sight setting "stuck" on a word or sentence (repeating)

10. Insertions and substitutions of words and letters

11. Difficulty blending sounds and syllables

12. Comprehension

13. Excessive effort required to read

14. Difficulty maintaining sequential order of written material

15. Difficulty with oral expression

16. Persistent spelling errors

17. Handwriting

18. Arithmetic and mathematical calculation

Dysgraphia

Dysgraphia is a specific learning disability involving impairment in the ability to process and report information in written form. Learning to write is a complex task, involving the complex integration of several processes, including visual perception, sensory-motor integration, motor planning, memory, and spatial processing. Impairments in any or all of these areas can result in significant difficulties in the acquisition of writing skills. People with dysgraphia have severe difficulty getting the hands and eye to work together smoothly, resulting in handwriting that is sloppy, disorganized, and often completely illegible. Although the specific nature of difficulty can vary considerably from person to person, symptoms commonly include:

  • Slow acquisition of writing skills
  • Difficulty remembering the shapes of letters and numbers
  • Problems with letter/number formation
  • Mirror writing
  • Reversal of letters and numbers
  • Problems with page layouts
  • Uneven spacing
  • Omission of letters/numbers
  • Repetition of letters/numbers
  • Disorganized, sloppy papers
  • Many cross-outs and erasures
  • Errors in capitalization
  • Frequent errors in punctuation
  • Spelling errors
  • Excessive time and energy required to complete writing assignments
  • Errors in word usage and grammar

Diagnosis

The diagnosis of dysgraphia (also known as a "disorder of Written Expression") is made only when writing skills are substantially below the expected based on chronological age, intelligence, and age appropriate education. In addition, the difficulties significantly interfere with academic achievement or activities of daily living that require expressive writing skills (1). Many people with dysgraphia also have other areas of difficulty. Dysgraphia is frequently associated with dyslexia, attention deficit and memory disorders, and mathematical learning disability (dyscalculia).

1.   Adapted from: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition. American Psychiatric Association, 1994.

Dyscalculia

Dyscalculia, or "math disorder", is a learning disability involving server difficulties in learning to perform basic arithmetic calculations. Although the specific nature of difficulty can vary considerably areas : (1) impairments in linguistic processing skills involving mathematical terms and concepts; (2) impairments in perceptual skills in recognizing numerical symbols; (3) attention and memory problems that interfere with copying correctly and following procedures; and (4) decoding written problems.

The underlying causes of dyscalculia are not well understood. However, most of the difficulties associated with dyscalculia suggest that right hemisphere parietal lobe dysfunctions are likely play a significant role. Some researchers (Rourke, 1978; Temple, 1992) hold that there may be several different forms of dyscalculia, all having a different symptom profile and cause. Common areas of difficulty include:

Common Areas of Difficulty

  • Difficulty understanding basic number concepts
  • Difficulty understanding numerical relationship
  • Errors involving basic number concepts
  • Error involving reading and writing numbers
  • Problems counting
  • Problems learning calculations
  • Problems learning multiplication tables
  • Errors involving enumeration
  • Reversal of written numbers
  • Excessive time and energy required to carry out arithmetic problems
  • Difficulty with words problems
  • Problems with aligning columns
  • Difficulty with measurement
  • Avoidance of anything having to do with numbers
  • Emotional distress related to arithmetic
  • Poor frustration tolerance with tasks involving numbers
  • Perseveration (e.g., if the first question on a arithmetic assignment is addition, the child may continue to do addition even when the other problems are subtraction).

Diagnosis

Dyscalculia is thought to affect around 6% of the population, although some researchers suggest the rates may be higher. It is frequently associated with reading, handwriting and other learning disabilities, although it sometimes occurs alone. The diagnosis of dyscalculia is made only when mathematical ability is substantially below the expected based on chronological age, intelligence, and age appropriate education. In addition, the difficulties significantly interfere with academic achievement of activities of daily living that require mathematical ability.

Resource: Mr. Ernie Jones, Problems of Childhood 2006, Department of Psychology Las Positas College, CA.

http://www.brainenhancementprogram.com/en/symptoms/Dyslexia.html